Inatención del conductor: Un estudio acerca de las relaciones entre redes atencionales y la propensión a cometer errores durante la conducción / Driver inattention: Relationships between attentional networks and propensity to commit errors while driving

Los accidentes de tránsito son un fenómeno complejo, resultado de factores ambientales, vehiculares y humanos, y una de las principales causas de muerte a nivel mundial. La inatenciónes un factor primordial que contribuye a los accidentes de tránsito. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar la relación entre la atención según el modelo de redes atencionales de Posner (1994) y la propensión a cometer errores relacionados con la inatención durante la conducción vehicular. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 70 participantes, edades entre 19 y 59 años, ambos géneros, 9.83 años de experticia como promedio. Se utilizó el Cuestionario de Experiencias durante la conducción (ARDES-ERIC),Test de Redes Atencionales (ANT) y un cuestionario sociodemográfico. Los resultados indican que existe una correlación significativa en-tre el tiempo de reacción (TR) total y la propensión a cometer errores durante la conducción. La interacción entre la experticia y el TR total sobre la propensión a cometer errores fue significativa. La atención ejecutiva tuvo un efecto significativo sobre la propensión a cometer errores y la dimensión de control. El modelo que incluye la red de orientación y tiempos de reacción explicó el 20% de la propensión a cometer errores en la conducción. Una alta orientación está asociada con una baja propensión a cometer errores, y los tiempos de reacción más lentos están relacionados con altos errores de conducción. Los resultados son consistentes con estudios previos y aportan nueva evidencia sobre el rol de los tiempos de reacción y redes atencionales en interacción con variables sociodemográficas y experticia sobre la propensión a cometer errores en la conducción.

Traffic accidents are a complex phenomenon resulting from a combination of environmental, vehicular and human factors, which have become one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Inattention is one of the main factors contributing to traffic accidents. The aim was to analyze the relationships between attention and the error proneness while driving. Posner´s model states three attentional networks quantified by reaction time measures: orienting, alerting, and executive control (Posner, 1994; Fan et al., 2002). Orienting is responsible for the information selection. Alerting facilitates achieving and sustaining an alert state. Executive attention controls interference and solves conflicts between possible responses. Driver inattention was conceptualized from a perspective of individual differences as a "tendency or personal propensity of drivers to experience attentional lapses" (Ledesma et al., 2010, 2015). This tendency canbe expressed at different levels of driving behavior: operational level, maneuvering, and strategic level (Michon, 1985). The sample consisted of 70 drivers from Buenos Aires (Argentina), both genders (57% female; Mage = 29.29; SD =9.258; Mexperience years = 9.83; SD = 8.861), inclusion criteria: driver's license, regular driving during the last two months (at least once a week), normal vision, and at least one year of driving experience. Factorial design 2 (low- high for each of the attentional networks) x 2 (gender). Measures: ARDES-ERIC (Ledesma et al., 2010): a 19-items self-report instrument to evaluate individual differences in the propensity to commit attentional failures while driving and can be classified according to the driving task le-vel at which they occur (navigation, maneuve-ring, or control) (Alpha: .88; navigation Alpha:.744, maneuvering Alpha: .727, and control Alpha: .770), Attention Network Test (Fan et al., 2002) to measure three attentional networks: alerting (Alpha: .52), orienting (Alpha: .61), and executive attention (Alpha: .77) and RT attention (Alpha: .87) and a sociodemographic questionnaire that includes question about driver behavior (e.g. frequency and experience). Results show that no relationship was detected between ARDES and age but there are significant correlation between ARDES and driving task level with Global Reaction Time (Global RT). ANOVA results show a significant interaction between Global Reaction Times and expertise on driving errors [F(1,64) = 7.746; p < .01; η² =.108]. Experts drivers with low RT (lower processing speed) have a higher propensity to commit attentional failures while driving (Mlowrt =35.58; SD = 13.08; Mhighrt = 26.95; SD = 5.21).There are no interactions between Global RT, sociodemographics variables (age, gender), and driving frequency on propensity to commiterrors. Global RT correlates significantly withtotal score driving errors (r= .373, p < .01). Executive Attention has a significant effect on total driving errors [F(1,66)= 3.760; p = .05; η² =.054], and only on the Control Dimension [F(1,66) =7.889; p < .01; η² =.124]. There are no effects of Alerting and Orienting on total driving errors neither on each dimension of driving. A linear regression model involving the Orientation network and Global RT explained the 20% of the total variance of the error proneness while driving (R² adjusted= .203). A higher level of Orienting attention is related to a lower propensity to commit errors (ß= -.332; p < .01), and alower processing speed (higher Global RT) explained higher driving errors (ß = .242; p <.05). Results are consistent with previous studies (López-Ramón et al., 2011) and provide new evidence about the role of executive control on specific dimensions of driving. In addition, the findings provide new evidence on the role of reaction times and attentional networks, in interaction with sociodemographic variables and expertise on the propensity to commit errors while driving. Limitations and theoretical-practical implications will be discussed.

Estilos parentales y estrategias de afrontamiento en pacientes con hipotiroidismo congénito detectado y tratado en forma temprana / Parenting styles and coping strategies among patients with early detected and treated congenital hypothyroidism

El hipotiroidismo congénito (HC) como enfermedad crónica impacta en la vinculación padres-hijo y en recursos del niño para afrontar situaciones conflictivas. Objetivos. Describir estilos parentales desde la percepción del hijo con HC y sus estrategias de afrontamiento. Población y métodos. Niños de entre 9 y 10 años con HC detectado por pesquisa neonatal y adecuadamente tratado y un grupo sin HC (grupo control). Se utilizó el cuestionario argentino de afrontamiento y la escala argentina de percepción de la relación con los padres y el subtest comprensión de la Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III (WISC III). Se compararon los resultados con el análisis multivariante de la varianza (multivariate analysis of variance; MANOVA, por sus siglas en inglés). Resultados. Se incluyeron 60 niños con HC; percibían a su madre con una modalidad de control estricto y a su padre con más aceptación. Buscaban mayor apoyo y se paralizaban más ante situaciones conflictivas que los 60 niños sin patología. Conclusión. Estos hallazgos podrían asociarse a mayor dependencia. Deben considerarse en la atención del HC.

Congenital hypothyroidism (CH), as any chronic disease, has an impact on the parent-child relationship and on the child's resources to cope with conflicting situations. Objectives. To describe parenting styles according to the perception of children with CH and their coping strategies. Population and methods. Children aged 9-10 years who had CH detected by newborn screening and had received adequate treatment and a group without CH (control group). The Argentine Coping Questionnaire, the Argentine Scale for the Perception of Parent Relations, and the comprehension subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III (WISC III) were used. Results were compared using a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Results. Sixty children with CH were included; they perceived that their mothers exercised a strict control and that their fathers showed more acceptance. They sought more support and became paralyzed more often in conflicting situations than the 60 children without CH. Conclusion. These findings may be associated with a higher level of dependence. They should be taken into consideration in CH care.

Perfiles cognitivos en pacientes con hipotiroidismo congénito detectado y tratado en forma temprana / Cognitive profiles of patients with early detected and treated congenital hypothyroidism

Introducción. Los niños con hipotiroidismo congénito (HC) detectados por pesquisa neonatal y tratados adecuadamente presentarían defectos cognitivos leves. Objetivos. Evaluar el coeficiente intelectual de niños con HC e identificar la presencia de déficits cognitivos específicos. Población y métodos. Se seleccionó un grupo de 60 niños con HC, de entre 9 y 10 años, detectados por pesquisa neonatal y tratados adecuadamente desde el primer mes de vida, y se comparó con un grupo control de 60 niños sin HC de la misma edad. Fueron criterios de inclusión la ausencia de patología intercurrente, concurrencia a jornada escolar simple y padres con nivel escolar mínimo de secundaria completa. En entrevistas individuales, se administraron la escala de inteligencia Wechsler para niños, tercera edición, figura compleja de Rey, test Woodcock-Muñoz revisado, Conners Continuous Performance Test II, test Illinois de aptitudes psicolingüísticas, test de fluidez verbal, test de cubos de Knox, Trail Making Test, test de caras y test de los 5 dígitos. Se realizó el análisis estadístico con pruebas t de Student (muestras independientes) ajustado por Bonferroni (p < 0,002). Resultados. Aun dentro del rango normal promedio, hubo diferencias significativas entre grupos en el coeficiente intelectual total y de ejecución (tamaño del efecto pequeño y moderado, respectivamente). Los niños hipotiroideos presentaron, en el área de ejecución, significativamente menor desempeño en velocidad de procesamiento, tiempos de reacción, atención, flexibilidad cognitiva, visoconstrucción y memoria a largo plazo. No hubo diferencia significativa entre grupos en el área verbal. Conclusiones. Los niños hipotiroideos congénitos, sin discapacidad mental, presentaron defectos cognitivos leves, que deben ser tenidos en cuenta para su atención integral.

Introduction. Children with congenital hypothyroidism (CH) detected by newborn screening and adequately treated may have mild cognitive deficits. Objectives. To assess the intelligence quotient of children with CH and identify the presence of specific cognitive deficits. Population and methods. A group of 60 children with CH detected by newborn screening, who were aged 9-10 years old and received adequate treatment since their first month of life was selected and compared to a control group of 60 children without CH in the same age range. Inclusion criteria: children without concurrent diseases, who were attending school in a single shift, and whose parents had at least completed secondary education. The following tests were administered during individual interviews: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (third edition), the Rey complex figure test, the Woodcock-Muñoz revised test, the Conners Continuous Performance Test II, the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, the verbal fluency test, the Knox Cube Test, the Trail Making Test, the faces test, and the 5 digit test. The statistical analysis was done using Student's t tests (for independent samples) with Bonferroni's correction (p < 0.002). Results. Even within the normal average range, significant differences were observed between both groups in terms of total intelligence quotient and performance intelligence quotient (small and moderate effect sizes, respectively). In terms of performance, children with hypothyroidism had a significantly poorer performance in processing speed, reaction times, attention, cognitive flexibility, visuoconstruction, and long-term memory. No significant differences were found between both groups in the verbal area. Conclusions. Children with congenital hypothyroidism and without mental disability had mild cognitive deficits, which should be taken into account for a comprehensive patient care.

Funciones ejecutivas: Un estudio de los efectos de la pobreza sobre el desempeño ejecutivo / Executive functions: A study about the impact of the poverty on executive performance

La bibliografía acerca del impacto negativo de la pobreza sobre el desarrollo neurocognitivo se ha ampliado y profundizado en los últimos años. Sin embargo, la explicación acerca de las formas y mecanismos a través de los cuales actúa la pobreza, requiere un mayor estudio. En el presente artículo se describen y analizan los efectos de algunos mecanismos de la pobreza sobre el desarrollo de funciones ejecutivas tales como: el control de interferencia y planificación al inicio de la edad escolar. En el año 2005 se trabajó con una muestra de 80 niños de ambos sexos, de 6 a 10 años de edad que eran alumnos de primer año de la Educación General Básica (EGB), en una escuela incluida en el Plan Nacional de Mil Escuelas Bajo el Nivel de Pobreza. También se trabajó con un grupo control de 40 niños sin riesgo que asistían a una escuela de nivel socioeconómico medio. Se administraron pruebas para medir el control de interferencia y escalas de observación comportamental y de percepción del vínculo con respecto a cada padre. Se hallaron diferencias significativas en cuanto al desempeño ejecutivo entre ambos grupos. La percepción de control hostil de parte de la madre, del padre y la edad del niño, resultaron variables predictivas de la capacidad de planificación. Las diferencias significativas halladas entre los niños expuestos y no expuestos a la pobreza, son consistentes con una larga serie de estudios e investigaciones acerca de los efectos de esta y especialmente de su duración, sobre el desarrollo físico, neurológico, cognitivo y social del niño.

Recent published research on the negative impact of poverty on neurocognitive development has been broader in scope and has analyzed more in depth the issue. Infant malnutrition, inadequate medical care, exposure to stress and violence (Shore, 1997), weak speech stimulation and scarce organization of the environment are risk factors conditioning self regulation, as assessed in previous research (Musso, 2005; Ninio, 1980; Peralta de Mendoza, 1997; Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). Nevertheless, there is a need for further study of the mechanisms and various ways in which poverty exercises such negative impact. This work describes and analyzes the effects of some of the mechanisms present in poverty which impact on the development of executive functions such as: interference control and planning, at the beginning of schooling. The sample was conformed by 80 children, between 6 and 10 years of age, boys and girls, attending the first grade of General Basic Education (2005 cohort, in República Argentina), at a school included in the National Plan of a Thousand Schools below Poverty Level. The group deemed at risk by poverty displayed the following indicators: children with high levels of malnutrition, high percentage of students who repeat courses which accounts for the number of older children, high percentage of unemployed parents, and with low levels of schooling. A control group was used that was formed by children attending a city school, not part of the Plan of One Thousand Schools under the Poverty Line; their parents had finished obligatory or high level education, they were merchants, employees or professionals. The instruments applied were: Simon Says Game (La Voie, Anderson, Fraze & Johnson, 1981, see Zelazo, 1996) to assess the executive or response control through the use of a rule, The Hanoi Tower (two rings version) to assess planing, a Self report to assess the childrens´ perception of parental styles (mother / father version) (Richaud de Minzi, 2006), and the Behavioural Observation Guide for Children (Ison & Fachinelli, 1993) that provides a quick overview of type and frequency of behavior problem in the children, were administered. Significant differences in interference control and problem solving were found between children exposed to poverty conditions and children not exposed. The perception of a hostile parental control and the child's age, were predictive variables of the capacity to plan. A statistically significant influence was found for Control by Withdrawal of relationships by mothers for hyperactive behaviour [F (1, 23) = 5,422; p = .029], when considering extreme groups with respect to perception of attachment. In other words, children who perceive that their mothers attempt to control them by denying care, affect or attention, tend to show more hyperactive behaviour than children who do not perceive that kind of attempted control. In addition, a statistically significant difference was found between the groups with very low and very high hostile control by the father, as regards planning [F (3, 41) = 4,429; p = .041]. That is, those children who perceive more hostile control from the father, show lower performance in their capacity to plan. The significant differences found between children exposed to poverty conditions when compared with those that were not, are consistent with the findings from a long list of studies and research results on the effects of poverty, particularly the duration of the exposure to poverty, on the physical, neurological, cognitive, and social development of children. The poverty factors can influence neurocognitive development through multiple mechanisms and specific associations. This study discusses the main mechanisms which could be responsible for the results reported in this study, concluding with the findings regarding the complexity of the multiple relationships between mediating mechanisms for poverty and neurocognitive development.